Technology-enhanced language learning

A language itself comprises a complex scheme with multiple interrelated components. Vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (sounds) are three basic components of a language (Grauberg, 1997). Learning a language requires one to have knowledge of these three components in a language scheme, knowledge of how they are used, and knowledge of how the three components can be orchestrated for reception (understanding a received input) and expression (producing an output) (Berninger & Richards, 2002; Grauberg, 1997). In practice, listening, reading, speaking, and writing are four skills rendering these three components in reception and expression; the former two are receptive skills for understanding, and the latter two productive skills for expression. These four skills of learning a language should be equally emphasized.

Language representation can be distinguished into four levels according to its complexity (Berninger & Richards, 2002; Sakai, 2005), ranging from sub word (e.g.,phonemes, morphemes), word (e.g., semantics, morphology), clause (e.g.,syntax/grammar), and up to discourse/text (e.g., conversation). Language learning starts with lower-level representations such as words, then to higher-level representations such as sentences and discourse, in both the receptive and expressive forms. This study adopted the above mentioned concepts and theories in the designs of the learning activities for the system we developed.

Computer technologies have been used in language learning since the 1960s. Warschauer (1996) suggested that the computer can serve in language learning as a tutor, a stimulus, or a tool for possible learning benefits such as multimedia practice with feedback, individualization, collaboration, fun factors, and integration of a variety of resources (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). A technology-enhanced environment for language learning is capable of offering enhanced input, interaction, and linguistic output to learners (Chapelle, 2009). The enhanced input for language learning refers to its versatile manifestation of the content (what linguistic information to be shown) and form (how the information can be shown). The interactivity provided by the computer system can result in an interaction between learner and learner, learner and computer,or within the learner’s mind. The linguistic output refers to the oral and written form of language production. Chapelle (2009) suggested that all three features of computer assisted language learning should be considered and integrated in the learning activities.

There have been a considerable number of studies investigating how computer technology may benefit students’ language learning. Laufer and Hill (2000), for example, designed a computer-assisted language learning dictionary incorporating multiple lexical information (i.e.,explanation in English, translation into first language,sound, root, and other information) for EFL students in Hong Kong and Israel. They analyzed students’ log files of accessing lexical information, and found that different people have different lookup preferences, and that the use of multiple lexical information in the dictionary seemed to reinforce retention. Likewise, Klassen and Milton (1999) found that a multimedia-enhanced learning mode improves students’ listening skills. Akbulut (2007) found that students learning vocabulary with associated pictures or videos performed better in the vocabulary test than those who learned only with textual definition (Akbulut, 2007). Similarly, in Chun and Plass’(1996) study, a higher rate of incidental learning was found in students who learned words annotated with text and pictures than those with text and video or text only. Also, they found a correlation between looking up a certain annotation type and using that type as a retrieval cue for remembering words. This finding is consistent with earlier studies of the redundancy effect in brain literacy (Berninger & Richards, 2002)and multimedia learning (Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003), that multiple ways of representing information and procedures is a general principle in brain organization. Students who were able to form redundant connections tend to be better readers (Berninger, 1994).